Effects of a Playoff Match on Competitive Anxiety and Autonomic Regulation in Professional Esports Players

1. INTRODUCTION

Competition is considered a stressful situation since it causes physiological and emotional changes, such as anxiety, in the responses of the athletes and consequently influences their performance [1]. Anxiety is inherent to sports, as it can be experienced at different levels [2]. A higher state of anxiety that occurs before or during sports competitions is defined as competitive anxiety [3], which can be classified as cognitive and somatic anxiety [4].

Cognitive anxiety is characterized by negative expectations about performance success or self-evaluation, accompanied by adverse feelings, thoughts, fears, and worries regarding one's performance. This can lead to a decline in self-esteem and self-confidence, negative self-talk, difficulty concentrating, and disrupted attention. In contrast, somatic anxiety is characterized by heightened physiological arousal, including increased heart rate and muscle tension. This can result in negative symptoms, such as nervousness, breathing difficulties, elevated blood pressure, and muscle tightness [4]. These changes in emotional states can occur before, during, or after sports competitions [2]. Thus, an increase in anxiety can lead to negative consequences in the athletes’ performance [5, 6]. There is a scarcity of studies on esports competition as a whole, and the impact of a match on physiological and psychological variables in professional esports players is of great interest to researchers and coaches [7, 8]. As the sport continues to evolve rapidly, gaining insights into its psychophysiological aspects will be crucial for informing technical, tactical, and training-related adjustments.

Esports, better known as electronic sports, are competitions involving video games, e.g., League of Legends, and their participants, referred to as players, may compete at amateur or professional levels [8]. From a psychophysiological point of view, the autonomic nervous system (ANS) shows changes in sympathetic and parasympathetic activities [9]. Considering the sports context, the ANS assessment can be performed non-invasively through heart rate variability (HRV) [10]. In fact, HRV is a sensitive physiological indicator for psychological regulation [11] that detects changes in sympathetic/parasympathetic balance in stressful situations, such as sports competitions [12].

Research carried out by Lane et al. [13] and Bernston et al. [14] reported that HRV is a sensitive indicator of changes in emotional state, thus suggesting an interaction between cardiac and neural processes. It is well known that cardiac control and response to different stressors can be explained by both variations in activation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) [15] and parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) [16-18]. In line with this, there is abundant evidence showing that a decrease in HRV parameters is associated with anxiety [19-21]. For example, Friedman [16] and Cohen and Benjamin [22] revealed that reductions in HRV parameters correspond to an increase in anxiety. These findings prompt us to explore the impacts of match outcomes on competitive anxiety and heart rate variability (HRV). This is important, as esports appear to rely much on psychological and neurocognitive abilities for success compared to traditional sports [8]. From a practical perspective, some studies addressed competitive anxiety [23-26] and HRV responses [27] to successful or unsuccessful match outcomes in traditional sports. However, there are no studies addressing competitive anxiety and HRV responses to successful or unsuccessful match outcomes (i.e., victory and defeat) in professional esports players. A few similar studies were conducted by Pena [27] and Fuentes-Garcia et al. [28], both on tennis players. Pena [27] investigated HRV before and after competition in junior tennis players. Results indicated that losers showed a reduction in PNN50 both on the training day and after the match compared with winners. A study by Fuentes-Garcia et al. [28] examined the influence of match results (win or loss) in an international competition on pre-competition anxiety and self-assurance among elite junior tennis players. The research revealed substantial differences in cognitive anxiety and self-confidence between victors and defeated athletes when comparing their pre-match and post-match values. More specifically, the post-match evaluations of the victorious athletes revealed a reduction in cognitive anxiety and an increase in self-confidence. Regarding esports, the existing studies mainly deal with reports of playing video games or have analyzed the lifestyles and health-related issues of the players. Thus, there is a need to understand the variations in cardiovascular, respiratory, metabolic [29], and psychological health [30] in esports in different contexts or according to different game results. The existing academic literature lacks any published research that specifically examines the impacts of both victory and defeat on competitive anxiety and heart rate variability (HRV) among professional esports athletes. A better understanding of competitive anxiety and HRV behaviors could contribute to enhancing athletic performance [31-34], thus allowing for the assessment of the recovery process between matches and throughout the competition [35].

The objective of this study was to analyze the impact of the outcome of a playoff game (victory and defeat) on the levels of competitive anxiety and HRV in professional esports athletes. More precisely, the study tested the following hypothesis: victorious players will exhibit lower levels of both cognitive and somatic anxiety, higher self-confidence, and superior autonomic responses compared to defeated athletes in the aftermath of the match.

2. METHODS

2.4. Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory 2 (CSAI-2R)

To evaluate pre-competitive anxiety, participants completed the Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory 2 (CSAI-2R) questionnaire. This instrument, developed by Cox et al. [40], is a condensed version of the CSAI-2 proposed by Martens et al. [41]. The CSAI-2R comprises 17 questions categorized into three components: cognitive anxiety (7 items), somatic anxiety (5 items), and self-confidence (5 items). The cumulative score for each sub-scale is determined by summing the Likert points obtained for each item. Each question offers

four response alternatives using a Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). The Brazilian adaptation of CSAI-2R demonstrated favorable psychometric properties for evaluating pre-competitive anxiety in Brazilian athletes [39]. The assessment duration was limited to 10 minutes. In our sample, the Cronbach's α values were 0.76, 0.81, and 0.79 for the sub-scales of cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self-confidence, respectively.

3. RESULTS

The analyzed groups exhibited homogeneity as there were no significant differences between the groups in terms of age (25.04±2.77 vs. 24.92±2.41 years old, p = 0.87), weight (79.6 ± 2.1 vs. 77.4 ± 2.6 Kg, p = 0.78), height (179.5 ± 1.6 vs. 177.7 ± 1.3 cm, p = 0.69), time of experience (7.92 ± 1.29 vs. 7.44±1.38 years, p = 0.22), and physical activity level (37 ± 1.2 vs. 35 ± 0.9 min per week, p = 0.63).

3.1. Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory 2 (CSAI-2R)

There were no significant differences between groups in terms of self-confidence at the baseline (p = 0 .999) and pre-game (p = 0.184) periods. Additionally, there were no within-group differences between the baseline and pre-game times for the VG (p = 0 .754) and the DG (p = 0 .844). Nevertheless, in the post-game period, the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 Revised (CSAI-2R) scores were higher in the VG group compared to the DG group (p ≤ 0.0001; effect size d = 2.26, 95% confidence interval: 1.52 to 2.93, Fig. 2A). A mixed analysis of variance revealed a significant interaction between group and time (F(2, 144) = 370.7; p ≤ 0.0001), main effects for the group (F(1, 144) = 313.4; p ≤ 0.0001), and time (F(2, 144) = 47.28; p = 0.003) for anxiety state.

The interaction analysis showed increased levels of self-confidence post-game (17.40 ± 1.15) compared to BL (9.79 ± 1.53) and pre-game (10.78 ± 0.92) in the VG (p ≤ 0.0001; d = 5.62, CI 95%: 4.32 to 6.75 and d = 6.36, CI 95%: 4.91 to 7.60, respectively). On the other hand, there was a decreased self-confidence score post-game (8.1 ± 5.7) compared to BL (10.52 ± 1.12) and pre-game (10.79 ± 1.53) in the DG (p ≤ 0 .0001; d = 0 .59, CI 95%: 0.01 to 1.15 and d = 0.64, CI 95%: 0.07 to 1.20, respectively).

For somatic anxiety, no differences were found between groups at BL (p = 0.827) and pre-game (p = 0.265). Additionally, no intra-group differences were found between BL and pre-game in the VG (p = 0.867) and DG (p = 0.215). CSAI-2R in the post-game time was lower in VG than in DG (p ≤ 0.0001; d = 9.59, CI 95%: 7.51 to 11.37, Fig. 2B). The mixed analysis of variance showed a significant group-by-time interaction (F(2, 144) = 309.4; p ≤ 0.0001), main effects for group (F(1, 144) = 387.9; p ≤ 0.0001), and time (F(2, 144) = 22.08; p ≤ 0.0001) for anxiety state. The interaction analysis revealed a reduction in somatic anxiety levels post-game (6.16 ± 0 .86) compared to BL (9.58 ± 0 .88) and pre-game (10.04 ± 0 .90) in the VG (p ≤ 0 .0001; d = 3.93, CI 95%: 2 .93 to 4.81 and d = 4.41, CI 95%: 3 .32 to 5. 35, respectively). In contrast, there was an increased somatic anxiety score post-game (16.12 ± 1 .19) compared to BL (9.79 ± 1 .10) and pre-game (10.54 ± 1.58) in the DG (p ≤ 0 .0001; d = 5.52, CI 95%: 4.24 to 6.64 and d = 3 .99, CI 95%: 2.98 to 4.88, respectively).

For cognitive anxiety, no differences were found between groups at BL (p = 0.999) and pre-game (p = 0.999) times. Additionally, no intra-group differences were found between BL and pre-game times in the VG (p = 0.492) and DG (p = 0.815). CSAI-2R in the post-game time was lower in VG than in DG (p ≤ 0.0001; d = 8.42, CI 95%: 6.57 to 10.00, Fig. 2C). The mixed analysis of variance revealed a significant group-by-time interaction (F (2, 144) = 237.6; p ≤ 0.0001), main effects for group (F(1, 144) = 265.4; p ≤ 0.0001), and time (F(2, 144) = 53.62; p ≤ 0.0001) for anxiety state. The interaction analysis showed a reduction in cognitive anxiety levels post-game (6.70 ± 1.19) compared to BL (9.16 ± 1.12) and pre-game (9.95 ± 1.78) in the VG (p ≤ 0.0001; d = 2.13, CI 95%: 1.41 to 2.79 and d = 2.15, CI 95%: 1.42 to 2.80, respectively). Conversely, there was an increased cognitive anxiety score post-game (17.37 ± 1.34) compared to BL (9.37 ± 1.05) and pre-game (10.04 ± 1.75) in the DG (p ≤ 0.0001; d = 6.65, CI 95%: 5.14 to 7.94 and d = 4.70, CI 95%: 3.57 to 5.69, respectively).

4. DISCUSSION

This current study aimed to investigate competitive anxiety and HRV responses before and after successful and unsuccessful matches (i.e., victory and defeat) in professional esports players. According to our hypothesis, winners had lower cognitive and somatic anxiety, higher self-confidence scores, and better HRV responses in comparison to losers who had the opposite results after the match.

Several studies have discussed the importance of monitoring anxiety and HRV in athletes. However, most studies focused on the impact of results in pre-competitive anxiety [23-26, 28, 49], HRV [27], or competitive anxiety responses before and after a competition [28], but not on the effects of results on competitive anxiety and HRV responses jointly. In line with that, our study revealed that victory and defeat interfere with HRV and anxiety responses.

Regarding anxiety responses, our findings indicated that VG experienced significantly reduced cognitive and somatic anxiety scores, along with increased self-confidence scores at the post-game time compared to baseline (BL) and pre-game times. In contrast, DG showed the opposite pattern, with significantly increased cognitive and somatic anxiety scores, as well as significantly reduced self-confidence scores at the post-game time compared to BL and pre-game times. Furthermore, there were no differences between BL and pre-game times, as well as between BL and post-game in both VG and DG on the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory 2 Revised (CSAI-2R).

Concerning heart rate variability (HRV), our results revealed a substantial increase in RR, SDNN, rMSSD, pNN50, and HF and a substantial decrease in LF and LF/HF in the VG. DG demonstrated a substantial decrease in RR, SDNN, rMSSD, and HF, and a substantial increase in LF and LF/HF. Moreover, there were no differences in BL and pre-game times, as well as between BL and post-game times in both VG and DG in any HRV measure. Our results align with the existing literature on HRV and competitive anxiety, emphasizing that different magnitudes of response may occur depending on the situation because of the robust correlation between the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and anxiety.

The results of a competition are considered a significant factor contributing to anxiety responses and HRV changes. Additionally, recent studies have underscored the importance of using HRV to monitor players, and the assessment of anxiety levels in high-performance sports is deemed crucial for emotional control throughout the competition. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to investigate the impact of victory and defeat on heart rate variability (HRV) responses and competitive anxiety. Despite this, it is reasonable to suggest that victory and defeat have positive and negative effects on HRV and anxiety behaviors. In this context, our results regarding anxiety levels are in line with a previous study by Fuentes-Garcia et al. [28], even though they specifically focused on competitive anxiety. The authors explored the influence of victory and defeat on pre-competitive anxiety in athletes during international tennis competitions. Significant differences were noted in cognitive anxiety and self-assurance levels when analyzing pre-game and post-game results among winners and defeated players. Winners encountered a notable decrease in cognitive anxiety and a rise in self-confidence following the match.

These findings reinforce our results, suggesting that esports players who emerge victorious tend to exhibit more adaptive responses in cognitive and somatic anxiety, self-confidence, and greater parasympathetic activation compared to losers. These differences can extend to HRV. In a similar vein, a study by Pena [27] demonstrated that junior tennis players who were defeated experienced a significant reduction in PNN50 after the match compared to the winners. These findings suggest that losers had higher sympathetic activity than winners after the match. Overall, anxiety can be regarded as a failure in the ability to inhibit cognitive, affective, behavioral, and physiological responses, leading to reduced vagal outflow and lowered HRV.

The neurovisceral integration model emphasizes the involvement of the prefrontal cortex in inhibitory processes mediated by the vagus nerve, which can be observed through measures of heart rate variability (HRV) [16]. An imbalance between sympathetic and parasympathetic activity, which is linked to task performance [51], can give rise to significant alterations in prefrontal cortex functioning (responsible for executive functions) at various levels [52]. Consequently, these changes can impact an individual's psychological state, including the experience of anxiety [53].

There is a correlation between cognitive functioning, anxiety levels, and heart rate variability (HRV), as the connection between the brain and heart is constant and crucial for efficient and regulated functioning [54]. However, anxiety levels impact HRV through the vagus nerve (parasympathetic), which influences the sinoatrial node of the heart, resulting in an imbalance between sympathetic and parasympathetic activity [53, 55]. Moreover, given that players are consistently active, whether during training or competition, their performance can influence neurocardiac dynamics, and the outcome of a match (be it a win or a loss) can impact the establishment of a sympathetic/parasympathetic balance [50]. In esports, sustained demands on concentration, attention, and decision-making are required throughout the match to ensure task efficiency [8], and this demand leads to changes in anxiety levels and HRV, influencing positively or negatively on match performance. Furthermore, the concept of the polyvagal theory [56] emphasizes the significance of the myelinated vagus nerve in facilitating social interaction and communication, as well as inducing states of relaxation by suppressing sympathetic activity in the heart and modulating the hypo-pituitary-adrenal axis. When an individual perceives their environment as safe, there is an increase in vagal outflow, which promotes restoration, maintenance of internal balance, and engagement in social interactions. However, impairments in these neural processes can lead to possible damage to the perception that certain environments are safe, as well as difficulties in communication and social interaction, which can impair the performance of players during training and matches. Therefore, the link between anxiety and deficits in the inhibition of sympathetic function, as well as the difficulty in communication and social interaction, can be explained by the polyvagal theory.

Our findings have important implications for establishing the relationship between the reduction in HRV parameters with anxiety in professional esports players. Based on clinical studies, individuals with anxiety disorders have a higher attentional bias related to threatening cues when compared to individuals without anxiety disorders [57]. This pattern of behavior results in consistently elevated levels of corticotropin (released in response to stress) and cortisol, leading to a persistent suppression of parasympathetic activity (i.e., low vagal tone) [58]. Moreover, ongoing concerns may disrupt the regulation of cardiac autonomic function in the presence of threatening stimuli [14]. It is plausible that a decline in vagal function (which plays a critical role in regulating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis) [59] contributes to heightened reactivity to stressors.

The inability to disengage from threat detection intensifies sympathetic activation due to the enduring reduction of parasympathetic activity (and subsequent long-term decreases in heart rate variability). Machado et al. [7] explored for the first time the impact of victory and defeat in playoff matches on competitive anxiety and HRV in professional esports players. Hence, more studies are required to better comprehend HRV patterns and emotional states (beyond stress and anxiety) in professional esports players, both prior to and following different game outcomes, such as victories, defeats, and potential draws. These studies hold significance in comprehending the dynamics of these factors over the course of a competitive season, thereby offering valuable insights for potential interventions aimed at facilitating the players' recovery between matches and throughout the entire competition.

The present study uncovered noteworthy, albeit preliminary, discoveries that hold relevance for professional esports players and coaches. Our results indicated that victory and defeat in playoffs provoke different responses in HRV and anxiety state. As a practical implication, we can use HRV as a monitoring tool for athletes during competition, especially in playoffs. The use of HRV in quantifying training loads is already established [31], as well as the analysis and organization of training programs [34]. This enables the evaluation, monitoring, recovery, and improvement of performance [60]. However, HRV was found to respond in accordance with the level of competitive anxiety influenced by environmental factors, such as victory or defeat. Thus, HRV plays an important role in this type of monitoring, as it is influenced by the emotional state [59].

In line with this, rMSSD is the most used HRV indicator at rest [61], as it is effective in identifying the parasympathetic level of the heart. Therefore, esports athletes and coaches should consider these results, as they can be utilized to evaluate, track, restore, and uphold effectiveness in training and game execution. This study has certain limitations. The examination of competitive anxiety and heart rate variability (HRV) in esports players during the game was not carried out, just before and after the games. Intra-match HRV and anxiety can provide insights into the athlete's psychophysiological state during the match. Without this data, the study may overlook critical fluctuations in stress and recovery that occur in real time, potentially skewing the relationship between HRV and performance outcomes. Moreover, HRV and anxiety are often used as a marker of fatigue and recovery. It is difficult to assess how fatigue accumulates throughout the match and how it correlates with performance metrics, leading to an incomplete picture of an athlete's condition. Also, there was no comparison of competitive anxiety and HRV parameters among players with different functions in the team. Furthermore, there was no assessment of a protective factor through psychotherapy or counseling that could prevent or alleviate symptoms early on.

For future studies, we recommend investigating the effects of ergogenic aids to enhance both neurocognitive and neuromotor performance, utilizing substances, such as caffeine [62] and non-invasive brain stimulation techniques like transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) [8, 63]. Furthermore, it would be beneficial to consider future studies that include measures during the matches and analyze differences according to team roles.

CONCLUSION

This study aimed to analyze the behavior of competitive anxiety and heart rate variability (HRV) in different teams during playoff matches in professional esports players. Our results revealed that VG exhibited better HRV responses, indicating greater parasympathetic activation. VG also showed lower levels of cognitive and somatic anxiety and higher levels of self-confidence in the post-game time. In contrast, DG demonstrated worse HRV responses, indicating greater sympathetic activation, along with higher levels of cognitive and somatic anxiety and lower levels of self-confidence in the same post-game period. Future research should delve into analyzing HRV behavior and other emotional variables before, during, and after the conclusion of competitive esports matches with different outcomes (victory, defeat, and perhaps draw). Additionally, exploring the impact of various ergogenic aids on neurocognitive and neuromotor performance would be valuable.

REFERENCES